Perceived cognitive performance in off-prescription users of modafinil and methylphenidate: an online survey

Journal article

Teodorini, R., Rycroft, N. and Smith-Spark, J. (2024). Perceived cognitive performance in off-prescription users of modafinil and methylphenidate: an online survey. Brain and Behavior. 14 (2), p. e3403. https://doi.org/10.1002/brb3.3403
AuthorsTeodorini, R., Rycroft, N. and Smith-Spark, J.
Abstract

Introduction
Modafinil and methylphenidate are used off-prescription for cognitive enhancement in healthy individuals. Such use is often reported in online surveys, but it is unclear whether drug use for cognitive enhancement is motivated by perceived poor cognitive performance or a desire to improve good cognitive performance. The current study investigated whether off-prescription users of modafinil and methylphenidate differed in their self-perceived cognitive performance from people who do not take these drugs.
Method
An online survey targeting forum sites assessed self-perceived cognitive function via the Adult Attention Deficit/ Hyperactivity Disorder Self-Report Scale, the Cognitive Failures Questionnaire, and the General Procrastination Scale.
Results
There were 249 respondents, of whom 43% reported no use of modafinil and methylphenidate (the control group) and 58% reported use of one or both drugs without a prescription for cognitive enhancement. This created an independent samples design with three groups. On both the Adult Attention Deficit/ Hyperactivity Disorder Self-Report Scale and General Procrastination Scale, modafinil and methylphenidate users reported higher scores than the control group, indicating higher levels of perceived inattention and procrastination. Scores on the Cognitive Failures Questionnaire indicated that modafinil and methylphenidate users rated themselves as having fewer cognitive failures than controls.
Conclusion
These findings suggest that at least some reported off-prescription users of modafinil and methylphenidate may be seeking to reduce the impact of self-perceived poorer performance, particularly in forms of cognition that are likely to impact on self-directed or self-motivated work.

Keywordsmodafinil, methylphenidate, off-prescription, cognitive performance
Year2024
JournalBrain and Behavior
Journal citation14 (2), p. e3403
PublisherWiley
ISSN 2157-9032
Digital Object Identifier (DOI)https://doi.org/10.1002/brb3.3403
Web address (URL)https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/brb3.3403
Publication dates
Print04 Feb 2024
Publication process dates
Accepted03 Jan 2024
Deposited22 Feb 2024
Publisher's version
License
File Access Level
Open
Accepted author manuscript
License
File Access Level
Controlled
Permalink -

https://openresearch.lsbu.ac.uk/item/95z53

Download files

Publisher's version
Brain and Behavior - 2024 - Teodorini - Perceived cognitive performance in off‐prescription users of modafinil and.pdf
License: CC BY 4.0
File access level: Open

  • 178
    total views
  • 68
    total downloads
  • 14
    views this month
  • 10
    downloads this month

Export as

Related outputs

The Roles of Rule Type and Word Term in the Deductive Reasoning of Adults with and without Dyslexia
Jacobs, J., Smith-Spark, J. and Newton, E. (2024). The Roles of Rule Type and Word Term in the Deductive Reasoning of Adults with and without Dyslexia. Behavioral Sciences. 14 (8), p. 635. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs14080635
Lived experiences of everyday memory in adults with dyslexia: A thematic analysis
Smith-Spark, J. H. and Lewis, E. G. (2023). Lived experiences of everyday memory in adults with dyslexia: A thematic analysis. Behavioral Sciences. 13 (10), p. 840. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs13100840
The impact of developmental dyslexia on workplace cognition: Evidence from a virtual reality environment.
Smith-Spark, J., Gordon, R. and Jansari, A. S. (2023). The impact of developmental dyslexia on workplace cognition: Evidence from a virtual reality environment. Behaviour & Information Technology. 42 (3), pp. 269-277. https://doi.org/10.1080/0144929X.2022.2152367
The impact of developmental dyslexia on workplace cognition: Evidence from a virtual reality environment
Smith-Spark, J., Gordon, R. and Jansari, A. (2022). The impact of developmental dyslexia on workplace cognition: Evidence from a virtual reality environment. ECCE '22: the 33rd European Conference on Cognitive Ergonomics. Kaiserslautern Germany 04 - 07 Oct 2022 Association for Computing Machinery (ACM). pp. 1-4 https://doi.org/10.1145/3552327.3552340
Reducing human error in the quality control checking of fresh produce labels
Smith-Spark, J., Katz, H. B., Wilcockson, T. D. W. and Marchant, A. P. (2022). Reducing human error in the quality control checking of fresh produce labels. in: W. F. Lai (ed.) Food Packaging: Safety Management and Quality Nova Science. pp. 307-321
Self-reported symptoms of developmental dyslexia predict impairments in everyday cognition in adults.
Protopapa, C. and Smith-Spark, J.H. (2022). Self-reported symptoms of developmental dyslexia predict impairments in everyday cognition in adults. Research in Developmental Disabilities. 128, p. 104288. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ridd.2022.104288
Automaticity and executive abilities in developmental dyslexia: A theoretical review
Smith-Spark, J. and Gordon, R. (2022). Automaticity and executive abilities in developmental dyslexia: A theoretical review. Brain Sciences. 12, p. 446. https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci12040446
Children's verbal, visual and spatial processing and short-term storage abilities: An analysis of verbal comprehension, reading, counting and mathematics
Gordon, R., Smith-Spark, J. H., Newton, E. J. and Henry, L. A. (2021). Children's verbal, visual and spatial processing and short-term storage abilities: An analysis of verbal comprehension, reading, counting and mathematics. Frontiers in Psychology. 12, p. 5671. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.732182
Dyslexia and syllogistic reasoning in adults: Differences in strategy usage.
Jacobs, J., Newton, E. and Smith-Spark, J. (2021). Dyslexia and syllogistic reasoning in adults: Differences in strategy usage. Dyslexia. 27 (2), pp. 153-167. https://doi.org/10.1002/dys.1676
The Effects of Alcohol Use on Prospective Memory: A Systematic Literature Review.
Kyriacou, A., Smith-Spark, J.H., Senar, J., Moss, A.C. and Dyer, K.R. (2021). The Effects of Alcohol Use on Prospective Memory: A Systematic Literature Review. Substance Use & Misuse. 56 (3), p. 359. https://doi.org/10.1080/10826084.2020.1868005
Vapers exhibit similar subjective nicotine dependence but lower nicotine reinforcing value compared to smokers
Rycroft, N., Hogarth, L., MacKillop, J. and Dawkins, L. (2020). Vapers exhibit similar subjective nicotine dependence but lower nicotine reinforcing value compared to smokers. Addictive Behaviors. 115, p. 106737. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2020.106737
A review of prospective memory impairments in developmental dyslexia: Evidence, explanations, and future directions.
Smith-Spark, J. (2020). A review of prospective memory impairments in developmental dyslexia: Evidence, explanations, and future directions. in: Raskin, S.A. (ed.) Prospective Memory in Clinical Populations Abingdon, Oxon Routledge.
Les fonctions exécutives chez les adultes avec une dyslexie.
Smith-Spark, J. (2020). Les fonctions exécutives chez les adultes avec une dyslexie. in: Colé, P., Cavalli, E. and Duncan, L.G. (ed.) La dyslexie à l'âge adulte Approche neuropsychologique Paris De Boeck.
La mémoire des adultes avec une dyslexie.
Smith-Spark, J. and Gordon, R. (2020). La mémoire des adultes avec une dyslexie. in: Colé, P., Cavalli, E. and Duncan, L.G. (ed.) La dyslexie à l'âge adulte Approche neuropsychologique Paris, France De Boeck.
Does unfairness sound wrong? A cross-domain investigation of expectations in music and social decision-making
Civai, C, Teodorini, R and Carrus, E (2020). Does unfairness sound wrong? A cross-domain investigation of expectations in music and social decision-making. Royal Society Open Science. 7 (9). https://doi.org/10.1098/rsos.190048
The off-prescription use of modafinil: an online survey of perceived risks and benefits
Teodorini, R., Rycroft, N. and Smith-Spark, J. (2020). The off-prescription use of modafinil: an online survey of perceived risks and benefits. PLoS ONE. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0227818
Working memory and high-level cognition in children: An analysis of timing and accuracy in complex span tasks
Gordon, R., Smith-Spark, J. H., Newton, E. J. and Henry, L. A. (2019). Working memory and high-level cognition in children: An analysis of timing and accuracy in complex span tasks. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology. 191, p. 104736. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jecp.2019.104736
Mental Reinstatement of Context: Do individual differences in mental time travel and eyewitness occupation influence eyewitness performance over different delay intervals?
Bangs, K. and Smith-Spark, J. (2019). Mental Reinstatement of Context: Do individual differences in mental time travel and eyewitness occupation influence eyewitness performance over different delay intervals? Journal of Investigative Psychology and Offender Profiling. https://doi.org/10.1002/jip.1536
The relation of “literacy glasses” to cognition in dyslexia and to extended mind theory
Smith-Spark, J (2019). The relation of “literacy glasses” to cognition in dyslexia and to extended mind theory. L’Année Psychologique/Topics in Cognitive Psychology. 118, pp. 365-365. https://doi.org/10.3917/anpsy1.184.0365
Memory in adults with dyslexia
Smith-Spark, JH and Gordon, R (2019). Memory in adults with dyslexia. in: Colé, P, Duncan, L and Cavalli, E (ed.) Dyslexia at university: Theoretical insights and practical solutions Brussels De Boeck.
Factors affecting accuracy in the quality control checking of fresh produce labels: A situational and laboratory-based exploration.
Smith-Spark, J., Katz, H., Wilcockson, T. and Marchant, A. (2019). Factors affecting accuracy in the quality control checking of fresh produce labels: A situational and laboratory-based exploration. Human Factors and Ergonomics in Manufacturing & Service Industries.. 29 (6), p. 447– 458. https://doi.org/10.1002/hfm.20806
Executive functions in adults with dyslexia
Smith-Spark, JH (2018). Executive functions in adults with dyslexia. in: Colé, P, Duncan, L and Cavalli, E (ed.) Dyslexia at university: Theoretical insights and practical solutions Brussels, Belgium De Boeck.
Executive function and academic achievement in primary school children: The use of task-related processing speed
Gordon, R, Smith-Spark, JH, Newton, EJ and Henry, LA (2018). Executive function and academic achievement in primary school children: The use of task-related processing speed. Frontiers in Psychology. 9 (APR). https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00582
Optimal approaches to the quality control checking of product labels
Smith-Spark, JH, Katz, HB, Wilcockson, TDW and Marchant, A (2018). Optimal approaches to the quality control checking of product labels. International Journal of Industrial Ergonomics. 68, pp. 118-124. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ergon.2018.07.003
Intoxicated eyewitnesses: The effect of a fully balanced placebo design on event memory and metacognitive control.
Gawrylowicz, J, Scorboria, A, Teodorini, R and Albery, I (2018). Intoxicated eyewitnesses: The effect of a fully balanced placebo design on event memory and metacognitive control. Applied Cognitive Psychology. 33 (3), pp. 344-357. https://doi.org/10.1002/acp.3504
Everyday memory in adults with dyslexia
Smith-Spark, JH (2017). Everyday memory in adults with dyslexia. in: Fawcett, AJ (ed.) DAS Handbook 2016 Singapore Dyslexia Association of Singapore.
Working memory functioning in developmental dyslexia.
Smith-Spark, JH and Fisk, JE (2007). Working memory functioning in developmental dyslexia. Memory. 15 (1), pp. 34-56. https://doi.org/10.1080/09658210601043384
Argumentation in Decision Support for Medical Care Planning for Patients and Clinicians.
Smith-Spark, JH, Glasspool, D, Fox, J and Oettinger, A (2006). Argumentation in Decision Support for Medical Care Planning for Patients and Clinicians. Argumentation for Consumers of Healthcare, Papers from the 2006 AAAI Spring Symposium. Stanford, California, USA 27 - 29 Mar 2006 London South Bank University.
Does the face fit the facts? Testing three accounts of age of acquisition effects
Smith-Spark, JH, Moore, V and Valentine, T (2007). Does the face fit the facts? Testing three accounts of age of acquisition effects. Vosniadou, S and Kayser, D (ed.) Proceedings of EuroCogSci07: The European Cognitive Science Conference. Delphi, Greece 23 - 27 May 2007 Lawrence Erlbaum. pp. 794 - 799 (6)
Label-checking strategies to adapt behaviour to design
Smith-Spark, JH, Katz, HB, Marchant, A and Wilcockson, TDW (2015). Label-checking strategies to adapt behaviour to design. ECCE 2015 – European Conference on Cognitive Ergonomics. Warsaw, Poland 01 - 03 Jul 2015 ACM. https://doi.org/10.1145/2788412.2788425
Cognitive predictors of accuracy in quality control checking
Katz, HB, Smith-Spark, JH, Wilcockson, TDW and Marchant, A (2015). Cognitive predictors of accuracy in quality control checking. Airenti, G, Bara, BG and Sandini, G (ed.) EAPCogSci 2015 EuroAsianPacific Joint Conference on Cognitive Science. Torino, Italy 25 - 27 Sep 2015 CEUR Workshop Proceedings.
Adults with developmental dyslexia show selective impairments in time-based and self-initiated prospective memory: Self-report and clinical evidence.
Smith-Spark, JH, Zięcik, AP and Sterling, C (2017). Adults with developmental dyslexia show selective impairments in time-based and self-initiated prospective memory: Self-report and clinical evidence. Research in Developmental Disabilitiesl. 62, pp. 247-258. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ridd.2016.12.011
The event-based prospective memory of adults with developmental dyslexia under naturalistic conditions
Smith-Spark, JH, Zięcik, AP and Sterling, C (2017). The event-based prospective memory of adults with developmental dyslexia under naturalistic conditions. Asia Pacific Journal of Developmental Differences. 4 (1), pp. 17-33. https://doi.org/10.3850/S2345734117000036
Verbal and non-verbal fluency in adults with developmental dyslexia: Phonological processing or executive control problems?
Smith-Spark, JH, Henry, LA, Messer, DJ and Zięcik, AP (2017). Verbal and non-verbal fluency in adults with developmental dyslexia: Phonological processing or executive control problems? Dyslexia. 23 (3), pp. 234-250. https://doi.org/10.1002/dys.1558
A review of prospective memory impairments in developmental dyslexia: Evidence, explanations, and future directions
Smith-Spark, JH (2017). A review of prospective memory impairments in developmental dyslexia: Evidence, explanations, and future directions. Clinical Neuropsychologist. 32 (5). https://doi.org/10.1080/13854046.2017.1369571
Forgetting to remember to remember: Prospective memory in adults with dyslexia
Smith-Spark, JH (2017). Forgetting to remember to remember: Prospective memory in adults with dyslexia. Dyslexia Review. 28 (1), pp. 9-11.
Time-based prospective memory in adults with developmental dyslexia.
Smith-Spark, JH, Zięcik, AP and Sterling, C (2016). Time-based prospective memory in adults with developmental dyslexia. Research in Developmental Disabilities. 49-50, pp. 34-46. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ridd.2015.11.006
Self-reports of increased prospective and retrospective memory problems in adults with developmental dyslexia
Smith-Spark, JH, Zięcik, AP and Sterling, C (2016). Self-reports of increased prospective and retrospective memory problems in adults with developmental dyslexia. Dyslexia. 22 (3), pp. 245-262. https://doi.org/10.1002/dys.1528
Retrospective and prospective remembering in adults with developmental dyslexia.
Smith-Spark, JH, Zięcik, AP and Sterling, C (2016). Retrospective and prospective remembering in adults with developmental dyslexia. International Workshop on Reading and Developmental Dyslexia (iWORDD). Bilbao, Spain 05 May 2016
Executive functions in adults with developmental dyslexia.
Smith-Spark, JH, Henry, LA, Messer, DJ, Edvardsdottir, E and Zięcik, AP (2016). Executive functions in adults with developmental dyslexia. International Workshop on Reading and Developmental Dyslexia (iWORDD). Bilbao, Spain 05 May 2016
Executive functions in adults with developmental dyslexia
Smith-Spark, JH, Henry, LA, Messer, DJ, Edvardsdottir, E and Zięcik, AP (2016). Executive functions in adults with developmental dyslexia. Research in Developmental Disabilities. 53-54, pp. 323 - 341. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ridd.2016.03.001
Reducing quality control errors by guiding behavior
Smith-Spark, JH, Katz, HB, Marchant, A and Wilcockson, TDW (2016). Reducing quality control errors by guiding behavior. 6th International Ergonomics Conference Ergonomics 2016 – Focus on synergy. Zadar, Croatia 15 - 18 Jun 2016 Croatian Ergonomics Society. pp. 315 - 322
Do Baseline Executive Functions Mediate Prospective Memory Performance under a Moderate Dose of Alcohol?
Smith-Spark, JH, Moss, AC and Dyer, K. (2016). Do Baseline Executive Functions Mediate Prospective Memory Performance under a Moderate Dose of Alcohol? Frontiers in Psychology. 7, pp. 1325 - 1325. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01325
Mental time travel ability and the Mental Reinstatement of Context for crime witnesses.
Smith-Spark, JH, Bartimus, J and Wilcock, R (2016). Mental time travel ability and the Mental Reinstatement of Context for crime witnesses. Consciousness and Cognition. 48, pp. 1-10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.concog.2016.10.002
Neknomination': Predictors in a sample of UK university students
Moss, AC, Spada, MM, Harkin, J, Albery, IP, Rycroft, N and Nikčević, AV (2015). Neknomination': Predictors in a sample of UK university students. Addictive Behaviors Reports. 1, pp. 73 - 75. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.abrep.2015.05.003
The effects of age of acquisition and semantic congruency on famous person category verification
Smith-Spark, JH, Moore, V and Valentine, T (2015). The effects of age of acquisition and semantic congruency on famous person category verification. CEUR Workshop Proceedings. 1419, pp. 84 - 89 (6).
Determinants of famous name processing speed: age of acquisition versus semantic connectedness.
Smith-Spark, JH, Moore, V and Valentine, T (2013). Determinants of famous name processing speed: age of acquisition versus semantic connectedness. Acta Psychologica(Amst). 142 (2), pp. 230-237. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actpsy.2012.11.016
Long-term age of acquisition effects in famous name processing.
Smith-Spark, JH, Moore, V and Valentine, T (2012). Long-term age of acquisition effects in famous name processing. Acta Psychologica(Amst). 139 (1), pp. 202-211. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actpsy.2011.10.002
Dyslexic students have more everyday cognitive lapses.
Smith-Spark, JH, Fawcett, AJ, Nicolson, RI and Fisk, JE (2010). Dyslexic students have more everyday cognitive lapses. Memory. 12 (2), pp. 174 - 182. https://doi.org/10.1080/09658210244000450
Investigating the central executive in adult dyslexics: Evidence from phonological and visuospatial working memory performance
Smith-Spark, JH, Fisk, JE, Fawcett, AJ and Nicolson, RI (2003). Investigating the central executive in adult dyslexics: Evidence from phonological and visuospatial working memory performance. European Journal of Cognitive Psychology. 15 (4), pp. 567-587. https://doi.org/10.1080/09541440340000024